Killer Whales Essays - Megafauna, Baleen Whales, Apex Predators

Killer Whales The scientific order of all types of whales is Cetacea. This large order is broken down into three further groups as well: the toothed whales or Odontoceti, which includes killer whales, dolphins, porpoises, beluga whales, and sperm whales, the baleen whales or Mysticeti, which include blue whales, humpback whales, gray whales, and right whales, and the Archaeoceti order, which are all now extinct. The genus of these species is Orcinus orca. Family. The killer whale is the largest in its family of delphinid. Bottlenose dolphins, common dolphins, and Pacific white-sided dolphins are included in this group as well. The scientific name for this family is Delphinidae. Fossil Record. Modern forms of both odontocetes and mysticetes can be seen in the fossil record of five to seven million years ago. Scientists believe that early whales arose about fifty-five to sixty-five million years ago from, now extinct, ancient land mammals that happened to venture back into the sea. Habitat And Distribution: Distribution. Killer whales can be found in all oceans of the world. They are the most numerous in the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic. However, their distribution is limited by seasonal pack ice. Habitat. The main living environment for killer whales is open oceans but they can also be found in coastal waters as well. Migration. Killer whales are very important in the oceans because they cause much of the migration of many fish and other prey. The movements of the killer whale to and from certain areas cause the other prey to move as well. Population. The worldwide population of killer whales is unknown, however they are not endangered whatsoever. Specific populations in a few areas have been estimated in recent years and some areas of the Antarctic alone have about 180,000 killer whales. The population can be distinguished because killer whales travel in pods, or groups. The resident pods can vary from as few as five to as many as fifty whales. The transient pod size varies from one and seven individuals. Physical Characteristics: Size. Male killer whales average about twenty-two to twenty-seven feet and usually weigh between 8,000 and 12,000 pounds. The largest male ever recorded was thirty-two feet and weighed about 21,000 pounds. As a male approaches adulthood, it acquires the typical male characteristics: it gains weight, and its pectoral flippers, dorsal fin, and flukes grow larger than those of females. Female killer whales average about seventeen to twenty-four feet and usually weigh between 3,000 and 8,000 pounds. The largest female recorded was twenty-eight feet and weight about 15,000 pounds. Body Shape. The killer whale has a sleek, streamlined body. Its physical characteristics are adapted for life in an aquatic environment. Coloration. Killer whales are easily recognized by their distinct coloration. The dorsal surface and pectoral flippers are black, except for the area below and behind the dorsal fin. The ventral surface, lower jaw, and undersides of the tail flukes are mostly white and the undersides of the tail fluke are lined with black. A white "eyespot" is located just above and slightly behind each eye and a gray saddle is located behind the dorsal fin. The distinctive coloration of killer whales is a type of disruptive coloration, a camouflage in which the color pattern of an animal contradicts the animal's body shape. By the flickering, filtered sunlight of the sea, other animals may not recognize a killer whale as a potential predator. Thus, making it easy for the killer whale to get to its prey. Body Parts. A killer whale has distinct pectoral flippers, or forelimbs. They have the major skeletal elements of the forelimb's of land mammals, but they are foreshortened and modified. They are rounded and paddle-like and are used mainly to steer and, with the help of the flukes, to stop. The flukes are the lobe of the tail on a killer whale. They are flattened pads of tough, dense, fibrous connective tissue, completely without bone. A large male killer whale may have tail flukes measuring up to nine feet from tip to tip. All traces of hind limbs have disappeared except for two reduced, rod- shaped pelvic bones, which are buried deep in the body muscle. These reduced hind limbs are not connected to the vertebral column however. The dorsal fin, like the flukes, is made of dense, fibrous connective tissue with no bones. It acts as a keel, stabilizing a killer whale as it swims. The arteries in this fin help to maintain body temperature. In males, the dorsal fin is tall and triangular and in females it may by

Dreams of Aviation essays

Dreams of Aviation essays Ever since I was just a youngster I have always had a fascination with airplanes. When I took my first trip on an airplane I was really uneasy about it. Then they brought me into the cockpit and let me see all the instruments and we talked about how planes worked. My fears all turned into fascinations and I realized how relaxing being in the air really was. After that I was almost sure that I wanted to get involved with planes. I found out about a program that could help me become more involved with planes and maybe help me get a career in an aviation field of work. The program I got into is called Civil Air Patrol. Civil Air Patrol (CAP) is an Air Force auxiliary that carries out non-combat missions on behalf of the U.S Air force. The average age of members in my squadron is 15. The group has grown from 14 enrollees last year to 20 directly after the 9-11 disaster. The program teaches Aerospace, leadership, and general skills necessary in emergency situation. For example, the CAP is responsible for most search and rescue mission in the United States. We learn skills in mock missions called SAREXs. (Search and Rescue Excercises) I joined CAP because I wanted to develop personal discipline. CAP allows me to receive as well practice personal discipline. I earn medals when I complete assignments and tests. These medals prove that I have completed the basic skills needed to attempt more advanced aviation training programs in the near future. The program has helped improved my self-esteem and I know that I am a part of a valued team in my community. I also joined because someday I aspire to be a pilot with my own charter airplane company. In the future, joining the Air Force could help me by allowing me a chance to further my knowledge of aircraft and also experience aircraft first hand, and also help me earn flight hours. The Air Force would be a benefit to me because I would be around many others with s ...

Outline and discuss the evolution of CSR Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Outline and discuss the evolution of CSR - Essay Example This paper explores the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility, tracing its evolution and how businesses implement it as well as how it affects them. II. Definitions of CSR Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) may be perceived in a variety of ways depending on one’s perspective. One commonly accepted definition is as follows: â€Å"The continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of local community and society at large.† - World Business Council for Sustainable Development, 2005 Another definition created by the European Commission (2003) is: â€Å"Responsible business practices that support the three principles of sustainable development: economic growth and prosperity, social cohesion and equity and environmental integrity and protection.† (p.5) III. Principles of CSR The United Nations is the main promoter of CSR. On December 31, 1999, then Secretary General Kofi Annan declared its principles at the World Economic Forum in Davos (Madrakhimova, 2013): 1. Human Rights – Commercial organizations should maintain support and respect for internationally recognized human rights in the creation of their standards of work. The rights to bargain collectively of workers must be upheld. Forced labour and child labour should be eliminated along with any form of discrimination in the workplace. 2. Ecology – Corporations should be conscious of the prevention of environmental problems and diligent in carrying out a more responsible attitude towards the care of the environment. They need to promote technologies and know-how in the reduction of negative impacts of some systems on the environment. 3. Anti-corruption – Corruption in all forms which include extortion, bribery and red tape must be prevented. 4. Legal responsibility – Legal frameworks bound in the territories where the businesses st and must be enforced. 5. Global responsibility – Compliance with international standards of social responsibility 6. Environmental Responsibility – collaboration of businesses and society in the rational use of natural resources, effective management of the environment and public health from the production of environmentally-friendly products. 7. Cultural and ethical responsibility – Compliance with relevant territorial cultural and ethical customs and traditions as well as moral norms followed by employees and other stakeholders. 8. Philantropic responsibility – support and development of the society and of individual marginal groups through voluntary participation in social programs and social and financial investment. IV. Benefits of CSR In a study of Lithuanian development of CSR practices, Spukiene & Urbonien (2011) report the following internal benefits in adopting CSR practices have been recognized: business sustainability; competitive advantage; e asier compliance with legislation; employee loyalty; attraction and retention of qualified employees; increase in productivity, quality and sales; financial improvement and access to capital; and reduction of costs. External benefits from adopting CSR practices were acknowledged as well: improved image and reputation; preservation of the environment; intangible benefits; contribution to Lithuania?s sustainable development; increased visibility; promotion of solidarity in the community; clients? loyalty; and

Evaluating the success of the tutoring program Case Study

Evaluating the success of the tutoring program - Case Study Example Unlike other programs that are assessed only on the basis of their outcomes, the success of this program will be assessed right from the way it aims to identify the need to its design and finally to the way its objectives and goals defined. According to Richards and Lassonde (2009) a successful tutoring program can be evaluated right from goal setting to curriculum development. The need The success of tutoring program is one that begins by identifying the need for which the program is being designed. For instance, the targeted person may already have some assessment information like retention rates, test scores, and even anecdotal reports from teachers and family. In such a case, the assessment is likely to entail a clear inventory of up-to-date reading aspects, with a clear indication or identification of their scope and nature, in order to effectively measure the need against existing services, as well as to identify the gaps that the new program is intended to fill. This process h elps at minimizing duplication, mobilize resources, build on experience, and avert the tensions that are likely to arise when the new program is rolled out. Most importantly, this information is aimed at helping the planners to concentrate on the kids whose needs are very high. Research shows that, on average, four out of ten kids are at a high risk particularly in terms of developing their level of literacy (Fashola, 2002). The tutoring program in this case was a success as it captured all the aspects mentioned. For instance, picking a child and administering an informal reading inventory. Analyzing and synthesize the results to know the need of the child. Interviewing the student by asking information about her and her family background such as age and language they speak at home. This initial stage was a big success as it helped the teacher to know the need and also to effectively measure the need against available services. Defines the mission A successful tutoring program must have a well-defined overall mission. According to Morrow and Woo (2001) when developing the mission of the program, planners are supposed to take into consideration significant contributions to supporting the child’s literacy development made by institutions such as child care centers, as well as other out-of-school community programs. Therefore, the mission statement must describe what the tutoring program intends to do in order to effectively address the needs identified. In this case, the tutoring program will be successful if its mission is based around the identified needs. In this case, the assessment will want to establish if the need is well identified: the student is female and bilingual. She does not do much reading at home, she like basketball, like Latin music just to mention but a few. In spite of all these, she wants to learn. When some words list and reading stories, started from 3rd grade word lists to 12th grade to read were administered to test her reading s kills, She did well until 6th grade word lists. The instructor was able to notice that she needed instructions and have comprehension problems. Generally, the need for the tutoring program was about reading. Therefore, the mission would read like: The mission of this Tutoring Program is to encourage the student to develop an attitude for reading, to learn, to help the student become an engaged reader, as well as to ensuring that the student has access to high quality reading materials. If the instructor developed a mission statement like this, he could easily proceed as it sets objectives and goals that the tutoring program is expected to deliver. Therefore, a successful tutoring program is assessed on whether or not it has a well-defined mission statement.

Hart's Hotel Nottingham Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Hart's Hotel Nottingham - Essay Example An organization always aims at giving quality service to the customers. This is meant to attract more customers thus leading to profit maximization and business expansion. This paper discusses in depth about Harts Hotel Nottingham, its accommodation and front service management. Hart’s hotel is said to be a magnificent place for exploration. It’s a classical 17th century mansion owned by Tim and Stefa Harts and under management of Rupert Elliot. The hotel maintains high standards of modernization with light and airy modern space. It presents beautiful scenery with walls decorated in a range of bright abstract canvasses and no echoes of its previous incarnation (Vickers, 2005:42). Not only is the place fantastic to the viewer’s sight but also a very clean environment with friendly and helpful staff. Scholar depict that the restaurant advocates for excellent service and delicious menus. The hotel is located approximately a 3-minute walk form the city centre hence c onvenient enough for visitation. Moreover, it portrays a quiet environment away from noise of traffic and nightlife thus relaxing and comfortable for stay (http://www.tripadvisor.com/ShowUserReviews-g186356-d292105-r14432692-Hart_s_Hotel-Nottingham_Nottinghamshire_England.html). Hart’s hotel has quite a pleasant accommodation service. The rooms have high ceilings thus making the place light airy, contemporary, and comfortable. The top quality beds are neatly and stylishly equipped with goose down pillows and duvets, and Egyptian cotton bed linen. Once, a customer visited the

History of terrorism

History of terrorism Terrorist acts or the threat of such action have been in existence for centuries. Historical examples of terrorist events can be traced, in writing, to biblical times; the Romans were known to have both practiced and been the recipients of terrorist activities. (Carr, 2003). The earliest known organizations that exhibited aspects of modern terrorism were the Zealots of Judea, and the Sicarri, theand Jewish groups active during the Roman occupation of the first century Middle East. The preferential weapon of the Sicarri (literally, Dagger Men) was the sica, a short dagger which they used it for murdering those those (mainly Jews) they believed to be traitorsy deemed apostate and, thus, selected for execution.The Zealots, who generally targeted Romans and Greeks, gave the modern term Zealot, one translation of which is a fanatical partisan.. (Merriam-Webster, 1984). Such killings usually took place in daylight and in front of witnesses, with the perpetrators using such acts to send a message to the Roman authorities and the Jews who collaborated with them. This tactic was adopted by subsequent generation of groups which are now known as terrorists. The Assassins, also deemed as a terrorist organization, were an eleventh century offshoot of a Shia Muslim sect known as the Ismailis.They also perhaps also recognized the significance of high publicity as do contemporary terrorists. Like the Zealots-Sicarri, the Assassins were also given to stabbing their victims (generally politicians or clerics who refused to adopt the purified version of Islam they were forcibly spreading) (Bugress, 2003; Rapaport, 1965). The term Assassin (from where the modern term assassination is derived) literally meant hashish eater- , -which is in reference to the ritualistic drug-taking, they were perhaps falsely rumored to indulge in prior to undertaking their murderous missions. (Bugress, 2003; Rapaport, 1965). Often, the Assassins deeds were carried out at religious sites on holy days a tactic intended to publicize their cause and incite others to it.Similar to the numerous religiously motivated terrorists nowadays, they also looked at their deaths on such actions as sacrificial. Even though both the Zealots and the Assassins operated in the past, they are relevant today: First as forerunners of modern terrorists in aspects of motivation, organization, targeting, and goals. Second ly, although both were eventual failures, the fact that they are remembered hundreds of years later, demonstrates the deep psychological impact they caused. Sacrifice was also a central element of the killings carried out by the Thugees (from which the word thug is derived). They were the followers of an Indian religious cult which ritually strangled their victims (usually travelers chosen at random) as an offering to the Hindu goddess of terror and destruction, Kali. In this case, the intent was to terrify the victim (a vital consideration in the Thugee ritual) rather than influencing any external audience. The Thugees were active from the seventh until the mid-nineteenth centuries. They were known to have committed as many as one million murders. Perhaps they were the last example of religiously-inspired terrorism until the phenomenon re-emerged a little over 20 years ago. According to David Rapport, Before the 19th century, religion provided the only acceptable justifications for terror. (Robespierre, 2009). Probably all holy texts (not just the Quran) have been conveniently interpreted to justify violence against others. Robiespierre described terror as the emanation of virtue. An additional tendency at the end of 19th century was the ever-increasing wave of nationalism throughout the world, which incorporated the nation (the identity of the citizens) and the political state. Simultaneously, the states began to stress upon the national identities of the citizens who were conquered or colonized, much like the Jews during the period of Zealots who either chose to integrate or fight back. Over the last several decades, the most well-known, Irish nationalistic struggle has still been unresolved. Nationalism, similar to Communism was the most ideological force of the 20th century. (Burgess, 2003). Nationalists and Anarchists The English word terrorism comes from the regime de la terreur that prevailed in France from 1793-94. In the beginning it was a device of the state, and was intended to strengthen the authority of the new-found radical government, shielding it from elements thought to be subversive. Always value-laden, terrorism was, initially, a positive term. The French revolutionary leader, Maximilien Robespierre, viewed it as vital if the new French Republic was to survive its infancy, and proclaimed in 1794 that: Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue; it is not so much a special principle as it is a consequence of the general principle of democracy applied to our countrys most urgent needs.(Hoffman, 1988). Under such rationalization, some 40,000 people were executed by guillotine, a fate Robespierre and his top lieutenants would themselves suffered. In the meantime terrorism started to take negative undertones which it carries today. (AltThough the terrorists themselves do not consider themselves to be unconstructive or harmful to society). Edmund Burk, who demonized the French revolutionary practitioners, made the term popular in English writings. As a result of the French Revolution,new distinct concepts of nationalism and citizenship were evolved, which also led to the development of a new form of primary secular terrorism. The Italian revolutionary Carlo Pisacanes theory of the propaganda of the deed, which recognized the utility of terrorism to deliver a message to an audience other than the target, and draw attention and support to a cause was a hallmark to this new form of terrorism. (Laqueur, 1999). Pisacanes thesis was first put into practice by the Narodnaya Volya (NV), which was not in itself new and would probably have been recognizable to the Zealots-Sicarri and the Assassins. In 1878, a Russian populist group, (which was described as to Peoples Will) was formed to be in opposition to the Tzars regime. The groups most famous decisive action was the assassination of Alexander II inon 1 March 1881, which also effectively sealed their fate by incurring bringing upon themselves, the full wrath of the Tsarist regime. Unlike most other terrorist groups, the Volya went to great lengths to avoid innocent deaths, carefully choosing their targets; usually state officials who symbolized the regime. Often compromising operations rather than causing what would today be termed collateral damage. It is also called bluecalled blue on blue by the military. Volya actions inspired radicals in different places. Anarchist terrorist groups were particularly enamored by the example set by the Russian populist Volya. Nationalist groupslike the ones in the Balkans and Ireland decided to resort to terrorism to meet their goals. As the 19th century gave way to the 20th century, terrorists attacks were carried out as far as India, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire. Two US presidents and a succession of other world leaders were victims of assassination by various radical elements often affiliated to groups but operating without their explicit knowledge or support. 9 (Stern, 2001). As in Europe , terrorism arrived on American shoresalso arrived in America before the twentieth century Not only were Anarchists active in America throughoutall through the 1880s, but during the American Civil War;, had seen acts deserving of the name, committed on both sidesAnarchists as were also instrumental in the formation of the Ku Klux Klan to fight the reconstruction effort which followed. (Hoffman, 1988). Terrorism and the State Sponsored Terrorism Long before the outbreak of World War I in Europe in 1914, what would later be termed as state-sponsored terrorism had already started to manifest itself in Europe. For instance, many officials in the Serbian government and military were involved in supporting, training and providing arms to the various Balkan groups which were active prior to the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand inon 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo; an act carried out by an activist from one such group, the Young Bosnians credited with setting in progress the chain of events which led to the war itself. (Guelke, 1998). Similarly, the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (MRO) survived largely because it became for all intents and purposes a tool of the Bulgarian government, and was used mainly against Yugoslavia as well as against domestic enemies. ( Walter Laqueur )that it became for all intents and purposes a tool of the Bulgarian government, and was used mainly against Yugoslavia as well as against domesti c enemies. Such examples clearly illustrate that state-sponsored terrorism is not a new phenomenon. The events in 1930s led to a fresh wave of political assassinations which justified the word terrorism. This led to proposals at the League of Nations for conventions to prevent and punish terrorism as well as to the establishment of an international criminal court (neither of which came to being as they were overshadowed by the events which eventually led to World War II).12 (Volkan, 1997). Simultaneously, in between years of war, state terrorism increased; a reference to the oppressive measures imposed by various totalitarian regimes, particularly in Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Stalinist Russia. While terror from above, from the states ruling elite, was the predominant form of terror from Roman times through the French Revolution up to the present, even in the twentieth century, terror from above, such as the Hitlers Holocaust, Stalins purges, Pol Pots Killing Fields, the Rwandan massacres, and ethnic cleansing in Bosnia, has clearly claimed many more lives than the terror exerted from below. (Volkan, 1997). In the beginning of twentieth century, the term terrorism started to become synonymous with terror acts from below that attempt to disrupt, overthrow, or simply express rage against the existing political order. 14(Reich, 1990).Generally, academics agree that modern terrorism from below first surfaced as an identifiably notable entity with the emergence of the Narodnaya Volya (the Peoples Will) in Russia, at the close of the nineteenth century. This particular group harboured intellectual ideologies, and they believed that by creating an institution of the state, they could ferment a revolution to completely cleanse the existing system. They tried to accomplish this by terrorist acts such as assassinating numerous Tsarist officials, including, in 1881, the Tsar Alexander II himself. (Parry, 1976).Even though they possessed an enduring hatred for their victims, this group showed remorse and regret for their actions, inflicting self-torture and beatings as punishment for taking the liv es of their victims. In fact, they were so concerned, selective and meticulous about only killing their intended victim that if their target was accompanied by a family member, or if there was a danger that innocents might be killed, they would call off the attack and wait for a better situation to present itself. (Laqueur, 2001). But they continued their actions because they comprehended that, political terror is unavoidable, moral and effective and that organized terror movements are the preferred alternative to a blind, witless insurrection of dumb people. (Ivianski, 1987). More recently, other governments, such as those of military dictatorships which ruled some South American countries in recent years, or the regimes in Zimbabwe, have also been open to charges of using such methods as instruments of state. Some commentators, such as Bruce Hoffman, argue that, such usages are generally termed terror in order to distinguish that phenomenon from terrorism, which is understood to be violence committed by non-state entities. (Hoffman, 1988). However not everyone agrees that terrorism should be considered a non-governmental undertaking. For instance, Jessica Stern insists that states in deliberately bombarding civilians as a means of demoralizing enemy, states have indeed resorted to terrorism. According to Stern, such instances include not only the Allied strategic bombing campaigns of World War II, andbut the American dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended the Pacific phase of that conflict. (Stern, 2003). This issue remains controversial, with individuals such as the World War II British Air Chief Bomber Harris was simultaneously defended and despised for his belief in the utility and morality of strategic bombing. It bears similarity to the modern-day concept of collateral damage. Terrorism Sincesince World War II In By contrast, the predominanceprevalence of non-state groups active in the terrorism that emerged in the wake of World War II is less arguable. The immediate focus onfor such activitiesty primarily mainly shifted from Europe itself to various colonies in the continents.Across the Middle East Asia and Africa, emerging nationalist movements resisted European attempts to resume colonial business as usual after the defeat of the coalition Axis powers.As the colonialists had been recently expelled from or subjugated in their overseas empires by the Japanese, it provided psychological support to such indigenous uprisings by dispelling the myth of European invincibility. Often, these nationalist and anti-colonial groups conducted guerilla warfare, which differed from terrorism mainly in that it tended towards larger bodies of irregulars operating along more along towards military lines than their terrorist partners in the other regions.Similarly in China and Indochina, such forces conducted insurgencies against the Kuomintang regime and the French colonial government respectively. In other places, like the Algeria, campaigns were fought, in both rural and urban areas, using guerilla warfare, for independence from French rule Struggle for independence against British and French rule also took place in Kenya, Malaysia, Cyprus and Palestine. (Both the French and the British bore the brunt of this new wave of terrorism, a consequence of their large pre-war empires). These struggles were conducted by groups who can more readily be described now as terrorist. These groups quickly learned to exploit the mushrooming globalization of the worlds media. According to Hoffman: They were first to recognize the publicity value inherent in terrorism and to choreograph their violence for an audience far beyond the immediate geographical loci of their respective struggles. (Hoffman, 1988). Furthermore, in some cases (such as in Algeria, Cyprus, Kenya and Israel) terrorism perhaps helped such organizations in the successful realization of their goals. As such these nationalist and anti-colonial groups are notable for any wider understanding of terrorism. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, terrorist numbers swelledincreased to include not only nationalists, but also those motivated by ethnic and ideological considerations. Nationalists groupslike the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), and its several affiliates came into existence. Moreover, other groups mushroomed such as the Basque ETA and the Irish Republican Army (IRA). The IRA also comprised of organizations such as the Italian Red Brigade, and the Red Army faction in Germany (then West Germany). With As with the emergence of modern terrorism almost a century earlier, the United States couldwas not remain immune from this latest wave of terrorism, although there the identity-crisis-driven motivations of the white middle-class Weathermen starkly contrasted with the ghetto-bred malcontent of the Black Panther Movement. (Lacqueur, 2001). Many of the terrorist groups of this period readily adopted methods that would allow them to publicize their goals and accomplishments internationally.The Palestinians were among one of the well-known groups who pioneered the hijacking of a jet airliner as a mode of operation and publicity. One such group, Black September, staged what was (until the terrorist attack of 9/11, 2001) perhaps the greatest terrorist publicity coup then seen, with the seizure and murder of 11 Israeli athletes at the 1972 Olympic Games.Such incidents resulted in the Palestinian groups providing the inspiration, in some cases, mentorship and training, for many of the new generation of terrorists organizations. Most of these organizations today have reduced their operations or ceased to exist altogether, whileothers, such as the Palestinian, Northern Irish and Spanish Basque groups, motivated by more enduring causes, remain active today, although some of them now have made moves towards political rather than terrorist methods.Meanwhile, by the mid-1980s, state-sponsored terrorism re-emerged, the catalyst for the series of attacks against American and other Western targets in the Middle East. Countries such as Iran, Iraq, Libya and Syria came to the forefront came to be supposedly believed to be the main sponsors of terrorism as a popular belief. Falling into a related category were those countries, such as North Korea, who directly participated in covert acts of what could be described as terrorism.[xviii] (Guelke, 1998). In the recent years the re-emergence of the religiously inspired terrorist attacks are common. But the state-sponsored terrorism remains a concern of the international community today (especially its Western constituents), although it has been somewhat overshadowed. The latest manifestation of this trend began in 1979, when the revolution that transformed Iran into an Islamic republic; the West blamed Iran to use and support terrorism as a means of propagating its ideals beyond its own borders. (Hoffman, 1988). Very soon the trend had spread to places as far as Japan and the United States, and to other major world religions as well as many minor cults. Sarin gas used in Tokyo subway attack in 1995 may not have been the first breach of the psychological barrier in the use of toxic/chemical agents becausesmallpox-infected clothing was used by the Pilgrim Fathers against the indigenous tribes of North America. Also, plague-infected bodies were launched into besieged cities and used to pollute water supplies in the fourteenth century. The same year Oklahoma bombing took place in USA. At this stage, the complex mix of motivations included religion. But it was the 9/11 al Qaeda attack which made the world realize, particularly the United States, just how risky this latest transformation had become. Contemporary Terrorism At present, terrorism influences events on the international level to a degree which was not previously achieved. This was primarily the outcome of the 9/11 attacks in 2001 on the World Trade Center, which destroyed the symbolic Twin Towers; and threatened the Pentagon. It thus dented the stronghold of America. Most Americans came to believe that an unmatched era of terrorism had erupted and the world had changed forever. Some observers of the event even believed that the daring, yet tragic, events of this particular day should be considered as an epochal moment in the history of the world. (24) (Carr, 2002). Soon after 9/11, US President George Bush declared the start of a Global War on Terrorists: an open-ended war with an undefined terminal objective. In a speech to the Congress, he committed all resources at his disposal, every means of diplomacy, every tool of intelligence, every instrument of law enforcement, and every necessary weapon of war (Bertrand, S, 2003) to defeating Am ericas newest adversary in that nations first war of the twenty-first century. (26)(Mandelbaum, 2001).However, for most people in the world, terrorism was not new and these events, while spectacular and disturbing, did not constitute the dawn of a new era in terrorist activities. On the contrary, the attack became a continuous and developing reality for the world, which was present in different forms for centuries. Hence, for most of the world, terrorism was familiar and acceptable as an additional form of traditional warfare. (Henrichon, 2003). Still, for most North Americans and many other Western observers, the radical novelty of the 9/11 terrorist attacks represented a new form of terrorism for the 21st century. (Deschenes, 2003). Since then, in the United States at least, terrorism has largely been equated to the threat posed by al Qaeda, a threat inflamed not only by the spectacular and deadly nature of the 9/11 attacks themselves, but by the fear that future strikes might be even more deadly and perhaps employ weapons of mass destruction. The worldwide threat of terrorism by al Qaeda and its franchises, to a large extent remained egocentric, and were seen as the rhetoric of the US administration concerning a so-called Global War against Terrorism. This was far from unique, considering the implications that al Qaeda in fact intended to start a global revolution. For instance the general public of countries such as Colombia or Northern Ireland that had long faced terrorism was more preoccupied with when and where the next FARC REVOLUTIONARY ARMED FORCES OF COLOMBIA ( FARC or FARC-EP, is a Marxist-Leninist revolutionary guerrilla organization based in Colombia. They have fought in the ongoing Colombian Civil War for more than 40 years)or Real Irish Republican Army attacks would occur rather than where the next al Qaeda hit will descend. Thus, the above reflections indicate, terrorism goes beyond al Qaeda, which it not only predates but will also outlive. Hence if terrorism is to be tackled efficiently, any consideration of handling it must be seen beyond the threat which is presently posed by this particular organization. Consequently, without a broad-based approach, this threat of terrorism will not only be difficult to resolve, but may become uncontrollable. The Evolution of Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century Terrorism is continuously changing. While at the surface it remains the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fearit is fast becoming a major strategic tool of the opposing forces. In the twenty-first century, it has become the most predominant irregular warfare strategy. It is easily adaptable to changes in facilities available to the terrorists, in order to operate, acquire finances, and evolve new capabilities; thereby developing a different relationship with the world at large. Two major events in the first half of the twentieth century predisposed the nature of present-day conflicts. The effects of two World Wars inflamed passions and hopes of nationalists throughout the world, and severely damaged the legitimacy of the international order and governments. During the earlier decades of the twentieth century nationalism and radical political ideologies were the major developmental forces acting upon terrorism. After World War I the Treaty of Versailles redrew the map of Europe by breaking up the Austro-Hungarian Empire and thus created new nations. It recognized the rule of self-determination for nationalities and ethnic groups. The minorities and ethnicities not receiving recognition to campaign for independence or autonomy were thus encouraged. Nevertheless, in most cases self-determination was limited to European nations and ethnic groups and deprived the others, especially the colonial assets of the major European powers, creating bitterness and setting the stage for the long conflicts of the anti-colonial period. The Arab nationalists particularly felt that they were betrayed. Believing they were promised post-war independence, they were doubly disappointed: first when the French and British were given authority over their lands; and then especially when the British allowed Zionist immigration into Palestine in keeping with a promise contained in the Balfour Declaration. In the last two decades, terrorists have committed tremendously violent acts for so-called political or religious reasons. Their political ideologies range from the extreme left to the extreme right. For example, the far left can consist of groups such as Marxists and Leninists who propose a revolution of workers led by revolutionary elite. On the distant right, one finds dictatorships which typically believe in an amalgamation of state and business leadership. Consequently, all Arabs have been united in their opposition to the State of Israel and to the Western Powers, particularly the United States. The Western world feel f eels equally a sense of guilt and remorse for the treatment of the Jews during the Second World War. (Berman, 2003). Consequently, the Western powers, under the patronage of the United Nations, have championed the Israeli right to a homeland at the expense of the Palestinians. (Hoffman, 1988). On the other hand, equally important has been the growth of Wahhabism in the Arab World. The indignation of the Wahhabis was initially directed, not against Western and colonial sources, but against those practitioners of Islam whom they believed were degrading and betraying the religion from within. The Wahhabi sect became true Islamic zealots who sought to eliminate anything or anyone who failed to meet the strict standards of their belief of purity and Islamic authenticity. (Hoffman, 1988). Even though initially a creation of eighteenth century Arabian Islam, Wahhabism has flourished because of its association with the ruling parties in most Arab countries. These particular regimes were ins talled by the Western powers when the various countries were created, because these particular Arab leaders had either granted the European powers with legitimacy during their colonial rule of the region; or had supported the Allied armies during the two World Wars. Under the old Arab system, social injustice and power were limited. However, with the new structure of states, the oil wealth, and the prevalence of modern communications, the inequality gap has been widened and the discrepancies have become much more obvious.Hence, lacking any other outlet, new and growing discontents find expression in religious extremist movements (Hoffman, 1988), like the so called Islamic Fundamentalist Muslim Brotherhood and terrorist groups like Al Qaeda. In contrast, for the Palestinian movements, which had concentrated and limited their efforts in the Middle East against Israel and for the repossession and recreation of an independent Palestinian state, these new organizations have a worldwide r each. Their supporters believe that the remedy for all of the ills of modernization is to return to true Islam. This thought process, included the abolition of all laws and social borrowings from the West and the restoration of the Islamic Holy Law, the Sharia (Berman, 2003). Their aim was not only to remove the Western intruders from their homelands; they also wanted to transport their message through violent means into the heart of the Western nations, especially the hegemonic United States, their most dangerous enemies, as they see it, are the false and renegade Muslims who rule the countries of the Islamic world and who have imported and imposed infidel ways on Muslim peoples. (Lewis, 2003). In addition to the traditional terrorist groups, the nationalists, and the religious, the 1980s and 1990s also saw a growth of terrorist groups with a variety of motivations, such as narco-terrorists, eco-terrorists, anti-abortionists, and animal liberationists. Some terrorists were simply m otivated by common criminal activities. (Laqueur, 1999). Religious inspired terrorism has a universal theoretical basis. The patterns of religious violence of the Sikhs could be exactly that of Irish Catholics; or Shiite Muslims in Palestine; or a fundamentalist Christian bomber of abortion clinics in the United States. (Juergensmeyer, 2001). Special interest groups include people on the radical fringe of many legitimate causes; e.g., people who use terrorism to uphold antiabortion views, animal rights, and radical environmentalism. These groups consider that violence is morally justified to achieve their objectives. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of Cold War in the early 1990s, the features of international terrorism took on a new face. The changing geopolitical situation, following the end of the East-West conflicts, a third radical concept has evolved in the form of twentieth century terrorism. There was no Soviet Union, no Warsaw Pact, no Cold War, and no consensus on what came next. (Lacqueur, 1999). However, it was now clear that the Soviets were no longer available to provide financial support or ammunitions to terrorist organizations or to their sponsoring states. (Bell, 1999).However, instead of retreating into their own nationalistic or religious cocoons, some of these terrorist groups adapted and evolved into truly global transnational organizations. As a result, counter terrorist organizations are not confronting a specific state, nor are they confined to their old norms of understanding and operations. In addition, todays terrorist groups are very well-financed. (Kushner, 1998). Such transnational groups no longer rely on handouts from sponsoring states, but, instead, have developed exceptional methods of gaining and handling their financial resources. Today robbery and ransom are replaced by high-tech criminal businesses, such as growing drugs; fine processing and distribution operations; and, finally, money laundering through legitimate businesses. (Combs, 2003). The modern terrorist is also very well-trained and well-educated. They have not only learnt from their past experiences, but also from military and criminal training methods, and integrated them into their own training programs. The former independence and isolation of many terrorist groups has given way to complex, multilayered, transnational organizational structur es, resembling the corporate hierarchy of a multinational corporation. Lastly and most significantly, todays terrorist groups are said to have access to the knowledge of highly sensitive destructive weapons; and have the ability to use Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs), such as chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear weaponry, although use of this type of armaments is still abhorrent to many terrorists. (Schweitzer, 1998). The use of terror has, throughout history, been known as an effective technique to achieve political, criminal, religious and ideological aims. The underlying objective to use the terror was aptly captured by the fourth century BC Chinese strategist, Sun Tzu, kill one, frighten ten thousand. The Anatomy of Terror (Sinclair, 2003) indicates that history is replete with examples of the use of terror in the pursuit of religious aims (e.g. the massacres by the Crusaders); material aims (e.g. the Stranglers of Southern India who terrorized road travellers, and the Mafia); quasi-moral, and ideological aims (e.g. General Bedfords supremacist Ku Klux Klan and the Shining Path); state and political aims (e.g. the Tzarist Okrhana and the Nazi Geheime Staatspolizei); and in the current context, religio-political aims (e.g. Al Qaeda and Hamas). Terror is easier to define than terrorism. Over 100 definitions of terrorism have been evolved. Sinclair gave interesting examples of the early use of biological and chemical agents as means of inducing fear and terror. These include the use of poison gas by the Spartans during the siege of Plataea in 428 BC; the use of smallpox infected materials by the Pilgrim Fathers from England to conquer the indigenous population

Understanding Ones Culture :: essays research papers

Introduction: Cultures in American Samoa Because of its history as a growing populated area of the Pacific, American Samoa has provided a huge experiment in multicultural understanding not only in the Pacific but also worldwide. Settlers from literally every neighboring Pacific Islanders as well as settlers from all around the continent have joined this country's indigenous inhabitants. These days, American Samoa is said that it would be a "melting ice " where diverse cultures would mingle and lose their distinctness as they came together, Instead, though cultures have mixed here, they have never "melted". Some have been strengthen in their distinctiveness. So, instead of a "melting ice ", we could see American Samoa as a kind of tile mosaic. On its useful surface, the bright focus of each culture contributes to a pattern in which all elements work together. It appears that this is how cultures work all over the world. They have a power in themselves, which resists dilution and homogenization. This power is based on the close relationship between the cultures and their members. In this identity lies strength; this strength is the reason we should celebrate, rather than challenge, diversity of culture in every group and individual. Culture is adaptive, integrated, and always changing. It shares these characteristics with organic life. In other words, with systems oriented towards survival. Customs that diminish the survival chances of a given society are not likely to persist. Those which enhance survival chances of a given society are not likely to customs are tried and honed as aids to survival, the mechanisms of human understanding move them constantly into integration with other facets of society. Thus change occurs in culture in an organic way. Humanities and its Cultural Explanation The humanities are involved in cultural understanding in ways with roots as deep as humankind. The mental capacity of humans today connects us absolutely with the mental capacities of our remotest ancestors. We share not only our ability to think and reason, but also the capacity for aesthetic and moral sensibilities. The humanities, the storehouse of values and traditions that form the foundation of society, work to make clear these shared capacities, these shared understandings. The humanities, in effect, help us to understand other cultures, including the cultures of the past. They do this by showing the shared intellectual and artistic heritage with which people of all cultures have made sense of the world.