History of terrorism

History of terrorism Terrorist acts or the threat of such action have been in existence for centuries. Historical examples of terrorist events can be traced, in writing, to biblical times; the Romans were known to have both practiced and been the recipients of terrorist activities. (Carr, 2003). The earliest known organizations that exhibited aspects of modern terrorism were the Zealots of Judea, and the Sicarri, theand Jewish groups active during the Roman occupation of the first century Middle East. The preferential weapon of the Sicarri (literally, Dagger Men) was the sica, a short dagger which they used it for murdering those those (mainly Jews) they believed to be traitorsy deemed apostate and, thus, selected for execution.The Zealots, who generally targeted Romans and Greeks, gave the modern term Zealot, one translation of which is a fanatical partisan.. (Merriam-Webster, 1984). Such killings usually took place in daylight and in front of witnesses, with the perpetrators using such acts to send a message to the Roman authorities and the Jews who collaborated with them. This tactic was adopted by subsequent generation of groups which are now known as terrorists. The Assassins, also deemed as a terrorist organization, were an eleventh century offshoot of a Shia Muslim sect known as the Ismailis.They also perhaps also recognized the significance of high publicity as do contemporary terrorists. Like the Zealots-Sicarri, the Assassins were also given to stabbing their victims (generally politicians or clerics who refused to adopt the purified version of Islam they were forcibly spreading) (Bugress, 2003; Rapaport, 1965). The term Assassin (from where the modern term assassination is derived) literally meant hashish eater- , -which is in reference to the ritualistic drug-taking, they were perhaps falsely rumored to indulge in prior to undertaking their murderous missions. (Bugress, 2003; Rapaport, 1965). Often, the Assassins deeds were carried out at religious sites on holy days a tactic intended to publicize their cause and incite others to it.Similar to the numerous religiously motivated terrorists nowadays, they also looked at their deaths on such actions as sacrificial. Even though both the Zealots and the Assassins operated in the past, they are relevant today: First as forerunners of modern terrorists in aspects of motivation, organization, targeting, and goals. Second ly, although both were eventual failures, the fact that they are remembered hundreds of years later, demonstrates the deep psychological impact they caused. Sacrifice was also a central element of the killings carried out by the Thugees (from which the word thug is derived). They were the followers of an Indian religious cult which ritually strangled their victims (usually travelers chosen at random) as an offering to the Hindu goddess of terror and destruction, Kali. In this case, the intent was to terrify the victim (a vital consideration in the Thugee ritual) rather than influencing any external audience. The Thugees were active from the seventh until the mid-nineteenth centuries. They were known to have committed as many as one million murders. Perhaps they were the last example of religiously-inspired terrorism until the phenomenon re-emerged a little over 20 years ago. According to David Rapport, Before the 19th century, religion provided the only acceptable justifications for terror. (Robespierre, 2009). Probably all holy texts (not just the Quran) have been conveniently interpreted to justify violence against others. Robiespierre described terror as the emanation of virtue. An additional tendency at the end of 19th century was the ever-increasing wave of nationalism throughout the world, which incorporated the nation (the identity of the citizens) and the political state. Simultaneously, the states began to stress upon the national identities of the citizens who were conquered or colonized, much like the Jews during the period of Zealots who either chose to integrate or fight back. Over the last several decades, the most well-known, Irish nationalistic struggle has still been unresolved. Nationalism, similar to Communism was the most ideological force of the 20th century. (Burgess, 2003). Nationalists and Anarchists The English word terrorism comes from the regime de la terreur that prevailed in France from 1793-94. In the beginning it was a device of the state, and was intended to strengthen the authority of the new-found radical government, shielding it from elements thought to be subversive. Always value-laden, terrorism was, initially, a positive term. The French revolutionary leader, Maximilien Robespierre, viewed it as vital if the new French Republic was to survive its infancy, and proclaimed in 1794 that: Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue; it is not so much a special principle as it is a consequence of the general principle of democracy applied to our countrys most urgent needs.(Hoffman, 1988). Under such rationalization, some 40,000 people were executed by guillotine, a fate Robespierre and his top lieutenants would themselves suffered. In the meantime terrorism started to take negative undertones which it carries today. (AltThough the terrorists themselves do not consider themselves to be unconstructive or harmful to society). Edmund Burk, who demonized the French revolutionary practitioners, made the term popular in English writings. As a result of the French Revolution,new distinct concepts of nationalism and citizenship were evolved, which also led to the development of a new form of primary secular terrorism. The Italian revolutionary Carlo Pisacanes theory of the propaganda of the deed, which recognized the utility of terrorism to deliver a message to an audience other than the target, and draw attention and support to a cause was a hallmark to this new form of terrorism. (Laqueur, 1999). Pisacanes thesis was first put into practice by the Narodnaya Volya (NV), which was not in itself new and would probably have been recognizable to the Zealots-Sicarri and the Assassins. In 1878, a Russian populist group, (which was described as to Peoples Will) was formed to be in opposition to the Tzars regime. The groups most famous decisive action was the assassination of Alexander II inon 1 March 1881, which also effectively sealed their fate by incurring bringing upon themselves, the full wrath of the Tsarist regime. Unlike most other terrorist groups, the Volya went to great lengths to avoid innocent deaths, carefully choosing their targets; usually state officials who symbolized the regime. Often compromising operations rather than causing what would today be termed collateral damage. It is also called bluecalled blue on blue by the military. Volya actions inspired radicals in different places. Anarchist terrorist groups were particularly enamored by the example set by the Russian populist Volya. Nationalist groupslike the ones in the Balkans and Ireland decided to resort to terrorism to meet their goals. As the 19th century gave way to the 20th century, terrorists attacks were carried out as far as India, Japan, and the Ottoman Empire. Two US presidents and a succession of other world leaders were victims of assassination by various radical elements often affiliated to groups but operating without their explicit knowledge or support. 9 (Stern, 2001). As in Europe , terrorism arrived on American shoresalso arrived in America before the twentieth century Not only were Anarchists active in America throughoutall through the 1880s, but during the American Civil War;, had seen acts deserving of the name, committed on both sidesAnarchists as were also instrumental in the formation of the Ku Klux Klan to fight the reconstruction effort which followed. (Hoffman, 1988). Terrorism and the State Sponsored Terrorism Long before the outbreak of World War I in Europe in 1914, what would later be termed as state-sponsored terrorism had already started to manifest itself in Europe. For instance, many officials in the Serbian government and military were involved in supporting, training and providing arms to the various Balkan groups which were active prior to the assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand inon 28 June 1914 in Sarajevo; an act carried out by an activist from one such group, the Young Bosnians credited with setting in progress the chain of events which led to the war itself. (Guelke, 1998). Similarly, the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (MRO) survived largely because it became for all intents and purposes a tool of the Bulgarian government, and was used mainly against Yugoslavia as well as against domestic enemies. ( Walter Laqueur )that it became for all intents and purposes a tool of the Bulgarian government, and was used mainly against Yugoslavia as well as against domesti c enemies. Such examples clearly illustrate that state-sponsored terrorism is not a new phenomenon. The events in 1930s led to a fresh wave of political assassinations which justified the word terrorism. This led to proposals at the League of Nations for conventions to prevent and punish terrorism as well as to the establishment of an international criminal court (neither of which came to being as they were overshadowed by the events which eventually led to World War II).12 (Volkan, 1997). Simultaneously, in between years of war, state terrorism increased; a reference to the oppressive measures imposed by various totalitarian regimes, particularly in Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy and Stalinist Russia. While terror from above, from the states ruling elite, was the predominant form of terror from Roman times through the French Revolution up to the present, even in the twentieth century, terror from above, such as the Hitlers Holocaust, Stalins purges, Pol Pots Killing Fields, the Rwandan massacres, and ethnic cleansing in Bosnia, has clearly claimed many more lives than the terror exerted from below. (Volkan, 1997). In the beginning of twentieth century, the term terrorism started to become synonymous with terror acts from below that attempt to disrupt, overthrow, or simply express rage against the existing political order. 14(Reich, 1990).Generally, academics agree that modern terrorism from below first surfaced as an identifiably notable entity with the emergence of the Narodnaya Volya (the Peoples Will) in Russia, at the close of the nineteenth century. This particular group harboured intellectual ideologies, and they believed that by creating an institution of the state, they could ferment a revolution to completely cleanse the existing system. They tried to accomplish this by terrorist acts such as assassinating numerous Tsarist officials, including, in 1881, the Tsar Alexander II himself. (Parry, 1976).Even though they possessed an enduring hatred for their victims, this group showed remorse and regret for their actions, inflicting self-torture and beatings as punishment for taking the liv es of their victims. In fact, they were so concerned, selective and meticulous about only killing their intended victim that if their target was accompanied by a family member, or if there was a danger that innocents might be killed, they would call off the attack and wait for a better situation to present itself. (Laqueur, 2001). But they continued their actions because they comprehended that, political terror is unavoidable, moral and effective and that organized terror movements are the preferred alternative to a blind, witless insurrection of dumb people. (Ivianski, 1987). More recently, other governments, such as those of military dictatorships which ruled some South American countries in recent years, or the regimes in Zimbabwe, have also been open to charges of using such methods as instruments of state. Some commentators, such as Bruce Hoffman, argue that, such usages are generally termed terror in order to distinguish that phenomenon from terrorism, which is understood to be violence committed by non-state entities. (Hoffman, 1988). However not everyone agrees that terrorism should be considered a non-governmental undertaking. For instance, Jessica Stern insists that states in deliberately bombarding civilians as a means of demoralizing enemy, states have indeed resorted to terrorism. According to Stern, such instances include not only the Allied strategic bombing campaigns of World War II, andbut the American dropping of atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that ended the Pacific phase of that conflict. (Stern, 2003). This issue remains controversial, with individuals such as the World War II British Air Chief Bomber Harris was simultaneously defended and despised for his belief in the utility and morality of strategic bombing. It bears similarity to the modern-day concept of collateral damage. Terrorism Sincesince World War II In By contrast, the predominanceprevalence of non-state groups active in the terrorism that emerged in the wake of World War II is less arguable. The immediate focus onfor such activitiesty primarily mainly shifted from Europe itself to various colonies in the continents.Across the Middle East Asia and Africa, emerging nationalist movements resisted European attempts to resume colonial business as usual after the defeat of the coalition Axis powers.As the colonialists had been recently expelled from or subjugated in their overseas empires by the Japanese, it provided psychological support to such indigenous uprisings by dispelling the myth of European invincibility. Often, these nationalist and anti-colonial groups conducted guerilla warfare, which differed from terrorism mainly in that it tended towards larger bodies of irregulars operating along more along towards military lines than their terrorist partners in the other regions.Similarly in China and Indochina, such forces conducted insurgencies against the Kuomintang regime and the French colonial government respectively. In other places, like the Algeria, campaigns were fought, in both rural and urban areas, using guerilla warfare, for independence from French rule Struggle for independence against British and French rule also took place in Kenya, Malaysia, Cyprus and Palestine. (Both the French and the British bore the brunt of this new wave of terrorism, a consequence of their large pre-war empires). These struggles were conducted by groups who can more readily be described now as terrorist. These groups quickly learned to exploit the mushrooming globalization of the worlds media. According to Hoffman: They were first to recognize the publicity value inherent in terrorism and to choreograph their violence for an audience far beyond the immediate geographical loci of their respective struggles. (Hoffman, 1988). Furthermore, in some cases (such as in Algeria, Cyprus, Kenya and Israel) terrorism perhaps helped such organizations in the successful realization of their goals. As such these nationalist and anti-colonial groups are notable for any wider understanding of terrorism. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, terrorist numbers swelledincreased to include not only nationalists, but also those motivated by ethnic and ideological considerations. Nationalists groupslike the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO), and its several affiliates came into existence. Moreover, other groups mushroomed such as the Basque ETA and the Irish Republican Army (IRA). The IRA also comprised of organizations such as the Italian Red Brigade, and the Red Army faction in Germany (then West Germany). With As with the emergence of modern terrorism almost a century earlier, the United States couldwas not remain immune from this latest wave of terrorism, although there the identity-crisis-driven motivations of the white middle-class Weathermen starkly contrasted with the ghetto-bred malcontent of the Black Panther Movement. (Lacqueur, 2001). Many of the terrorist groups of this period readily adopted methods that would allow them to publicize their goals and accomplishments internationally.The Palestinians were among one of the well-known groups who pioneered the hijacking of a jet airliner as a mode of operation and publicity. One such group, Black September, staged what was (until the terrorist attack of 9/11, 2001) perhaps the greatest terrorist publicity coup then seen, with the seizure and murder of 11 Israeli athletes at the 1972 Olympic Games.Such incidents resulted in the Palestinian groups providing the inspiration, in some cases, mentorship and training, for many of the new generation of terrorists organizations. Most of these organizations today have reduced their operations or ceased to exist altogether, whileothers, such as the Palestinian, Northern Irish and Spanish Basque groups, motivated by more enduring causes, remain active today, although some of them now have made moves towards political rather than terrorist methods.Meanwhile, by the mid-1980s, state-sponsored terrorism re-emerged, the catalyst for the series of attacks against American and other Western targets in the Middle East. Countries such as Iran, Iraq, Libya and Syria came to the forefront came to be supposedly believed to be the main sponsors of terrorism as a popular belief. Falling into a related category were those countries, such as North Korea, who directly participated in covert acts of what could be described as terrorism.[xviii] (Guelke, 1998). In the recent years the re-emergence of the religiously inspired terrorist attacks are common. But the state-sponsored terrorism remains a concern of the international community today (especially its Western constituents), although it has been somewhat overshadowed. The latest manifestation of this trend began in 1979, when the revolution that transformed Iran into an Islamic republic; the West blamed Iran to use and support terrorism as a means of propagating its ideals beyond its own borders. (Hoffman, 1988). Very soon the trend had spread to places as far as Japan and the United States, and to other major world religions as well as many minor cults. Sarin gas used in Tokyo subway attack in 1995 may not have been the first breach of the psychological barrier in the use of toxic/chemical agents becausesmallpox-infected clothing was used by the Pilgrim Fathers against the indigenous tribes of North America. Also, plague-infected bodies were launched into besieged cities and used to pollute water supplies in the fourteenth century. The same year Oklahoma bombing took place in USA. At this stage, the complex mix of motivations included religion. But it was the 9/11 al Qaeda attack which made the world realize, particularly the United States, just how risky this latest transformation had become. Contemporary Terrorism At present, terrorism influences events on the international level to a degree which was not previously achieved. This was primarily the outcome of the 9/11 attacks in 2001 on the World Trade Center, which destroyed the symbolic Twin Towers; and threatened the Pentagon. It thus dented the stronghold of America. Most Americans came to believe that an unmatched era of terrorism had erupted and the world had changed forever. Some observers of the event even believed that the daring, yet tragic, events of this particular day should be considered as an epochal moment in the history of the world. (24) (Carr, 2002). Soon after 9/11, US President George Bush declared the start of a Global War on Terrorists: an open-ended war with an undefined terminal objective. In a speech to the Congress, he committed all resources at his disposal, every means of diplomacy, every tool of intelligence, every instrument of law enforcement, and every necessary weapon of war (Bertrand, S, 2003) to defeating Am ericas newest adversary in that nations first war of the twenty-first century. (26)(Mandelbaum, 2001).However, for most people in the world, terrorism was not new and these events, while spectacular and disturbing, did not constitute the dawn of a new era in terrorist activities. On the contrary, the attack became a continuous and developing reality for the world, which was present in different forms for centuries. Hence, for most of the world, terrorism was familiar and acceptable as an additional form of traditional warfare. (Henrichon, 2003). Still, for most North Americans and many other Western observers, the radical novelty of the 9/11 terrorist attacks represented a new form of terrorism for the 21st century. (Deschenes, 2003). Since then, in the United States at least, terrorism has largely been equated to the threat posed by al Qaeda, a threat inflamed not only by the spectacular and deadly nature of the 9/11 attacks themselves, but by the fear that future strikes might be even more deadly and perhaps employ weapons of mass destruction. The worldwide threat of terrorism by al Qaeda and its franchises, to a large extent remained egocentric, and were seen as the rhetoric of the US administration concerning a so-called Global War against Terrorism. This was far from unique, considering the implications that al Qaeda in fact intended to start a global revolution. For instance the general public of countries such as Colombia or Northern Ireland that had long faced terrorism was more preoccupied with when and where the next FARC REVOLUTIONARY ARMED FORCES OF COLOMBIA ( FARC or FARC-EP, is a Marxist-Leninist revolutionary guerrilla organization based in Colombia. They have fought in the ongoing Colombian Civil War for more than 40 years)or Real Irish Republican Army attacks would occur rather than where the next al Qaeda hit will descend. Thus, the above reflections indicate, terrorism goes beyond al Qaeda, which it not only predates but will also outlive. Hence if terrorism is to be tackled efficiently, any consideration of handling it must be seen beyond the threat which is presently posed by this particular organization. Consequently, without a broad-based approach, this threat of terrorism will not only be difficult to resolve, but may become uncontrollable. The Evolution of Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century Terrorism is continuously changing. While at the surface it remains the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fearit is fast becoming a major strategic tool of the opposing forces. In the twenty-first century, it has become the most predominant irregular warfare strategy. It is easily adaptable to changes in facilities available to the terrorists, in order to operate, acquire finances, and evolve new capabilities; thereby developing a different relationship with the world at large. Two major events in the first half of the twentieth century predisposed the nature of present-day conflicts. The effects of two World Wars inflamed passions and hopes of nationalists throughout the world, and severely damaged the legitimacy of the international order and governments. During the earlier decades of the twentieth century nationalism and radical political ideologies were the major developmental forces acting upon terrorism. After World War I the Treaty of Versailles redrew the map of Europe by breaking up the Austro-Hungarian Empire and thus created new nations. It recognized the rule of self-determination for nationalities and ethnic groups. The minorities and ethnicities not receiving recognition to campaign for independence or autonomy were thus encouraged. Nevertheless, in most cases self-determination was limited to European nations and ethnic groups and deprived the others, especially the colonial assets of the major European powers, creating bitterness and setting the stage for the long conflicts of the anti-colonial period. The Arab nationalists particularly felt that they were betrayed. Believing they were promised post-war independence, they were doubly disappointed: first when the French and British were given authority over their lands; and then especially when the British allowed Zionist immigration into Palestine in keeping with a promise contained in the Balfour Declaration. In the last two decades, terrorists have committed tremendously violent acts for so-called political or religious reasons. Their political ideologies range from the extreme left to the extreme right. For example, the far left can consist of groups such as Marxists and Leninists who propose a revolution of workers led by revolutionary elite. On the distant right, one finds dictatorships which typically believe in an amalgamation of state and business leadership. Consequently, all Arabs have been united in their opposition to the State of Israel and to the Western Powers, particularly the United States. The Western world feel f eels equally a sense of guilt and remorse for the treatment of the Jews during the Second World War. (Berman, 2003). Consequently, the Western powers, under the patronage of the United Nations, have championed the Israeli right to a homeland at the expense of the Palestinians. (Hoffman, 1988). On the other hand, equally important has been the growth of Wahhabism in the Arab World. The indignation of the Wahhabis was initially directed, not against Western and colonial sources, but against those practitioners of Islam whom they believed were degrading and betraying the religion from within. The Wahhabi sect became true Islamic zealots who sought to eliminate anything or anyone who failed to meet the strict standards of their belief of purity and Islamic authenticity. (Hoffman, 1988). Even though initially a creation of eighteenth century Arabian Islam, Wahhabism has flourished because of its association with the ruling parties in most Arab countries. These particular regimes were ins talled by the Western powers when the various countries were created, because these particular Arab leaders had either granted the European powers with legitimacy during their colonial rule of the region; or had supported the Allied armies during the two World Wars. Under the old Arab system, social injustice and power were limited. However, with the new structure of states, the oil wealth, and the prevalence of modern communications, the inequality gap has been widened and the discrepancies have become much more obvious.Hence, lacking any other outlet, new and growing discontents find expression in religious extremist movements (Hoffman, 1988), like the so called Islamic Fundamentalist Muslim Brotherhood and terrorist groups like Al Qaeda. In contrast, for the Palestinian movements, which had concentrated and limited their efforts in the Middle East against Israel and for the repossession and recreation of an independent Palestinian state, these new organizations have a worldwide r each. Their supporters believe that the remedy for all of the ills of modernization is to return to true Islam. This thought process, included the abolition of all laws and social borrowings from the West and the restoration of the Islamic Holy Law, the Sharia (Berman, 2003). Their aim was not only to remove the Western intruders from their homelands; they also wanted to transport their message through violent means into the heart of the Western nations, especially the hegemonic United States, their most dangerous enemies, as they see it, are the false and renegade Muslims who rule the countries of the Islamic world and who have imported and imposed infidel ways on Muslim peoples. (Lewis, 2003). In addition to the traditional terrorist groups, the nationalists, and the religious, the 1980s and 1990s also saw a growth of terrorist groups with a variety of motivations, such as narco-terrorists, eco-terrorists, anti-abortionists, and animal liberationists. Some terrorists were simply m otivated by common criminal activities. (Laqueur, 1999). Religious inspired terrorism has a universal theoretical basis. The patterns of religious violence of the Sikhs could be exactly that of Irish Catholics; or Shiite Muslims in Palestine; or a fundamentalist Christian bomber of abortion clinics in the United States. (Juergensmeyer, 2001). Special interest groups include people on the radical fringe of many legitimate causes; e.g., people who use terrorism to uphold antiabortion views, animal rights, and radical environmentalism. These groups consider that violence is morally justified to achieve their objectives. With the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the end of Cold War in the early 1990s, the features of international terrorism took on a new face. The changing geopolitical situation, following the end of the East-West conflicts, a third radical concept has evolved in the form of twentieth century terrorism. There was no Soviet Union, no Warsaw Pact, no Cold War, and no consensus on what came next. (Lacqueur, 1999). However, it was now clear that the Soviets were no longer available to provide financial support or ammunitions to terrorist organizations or to their sponsoring states. (Bell, 1999).However, instead of retreating into their own nationalistic or religious cocoons, some of these terrorist groups adapted and evolved into truly global transnational organizations. As a result, counter terrorist organizations are not confronting a specific state, nor are they confined to their old norms of understanding and operations. In addition, todays terrorist groups are very well-financed. (Kushner, 1998). Such transnational groups no longer rely on handouts from sponsoring states, but, instead, have developed exceptional methods of gaining and handling their financial resources. Today robbery and ransom are replaced by high-tech criminal businesses, such as growing drugs; fine processing and distribution operations; and, finally, money laundering through legitimate businesses. (Combs, 2003). The modern terrorist is also very well-trained and well-educated. They have not only learnt from their past experiences, but also from military and criminal training methods, and integrated them into their own training programs. The former independence and isolation of many terrorist groups has given way to complex, multilayered, transnational organizational structur es, resembling the corporate hierarchy of a multinational corporation. Lastly and most significantly, todays terrorist groups are said to have access to the knowledge of highly sensitive destructive weapons; and have the ability to use Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMDs), such as chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear weaponry, although use of this type of armaments is still abhorrent to many terrorists. (Schweitzer, 1998). The use of terror has, throughout history, been known as an effective technique to achieve political, criminal, religious and ideological aims. The underlying objective to use the terror was aptly captured by the fourth century BC Chinese strategist, Sun Tzu, kill one, frighten ten thousand. The Anatomy of Terror (Sinclair, 2003) indicates that history is replete with examples of the use of terror in the pursuit of religious aims (e.g. the massacres by the Crusaders); material aims (e.g. the Stranglers of Southern India who terrorized road travellers, and the Mafia); quasi-moral, and ideological aims (e.g. General Bedfords supremacist Ku Klux Klan and the Shining Path); state and political aims (e.g. the Tzarist Okrhana and the Nazi Geheime Staatspolizei); and in the current context, religio-political aims (e.g. Al Qaeda and Hamas). Terror is easier to define than terrorism. Over 100 definitions of terrorism have been evolved. Sinclair gave interesting examples of the early use of biological and chemical agents as means of inducing fear and terror. These include the use of poison gas by the Spartans during the siege of Plataea in 428 BC; the use of smallpox infected materials by the Pilgrim Fathers from England to conquer the indigenous population

Understanding Ones Culture :: essays research papers

Introduction: Cultures in American Samoa Because of its history as a growing populated area of the Pacific, American Samoa has provided a huge experiment in multicultural understanding not only in the Pacific but also worldwide. Settlers from literally every neighboring Pacific Islanders as well as settlers from all around the continent have joined this country's indigenous inhabitants. These days, American Samoa is said that it would be a "melting ice " where diverse cultures would mingle and lose their distinctness as they came together, Instead, though cultures have mixed here, they have never "melted". Some have been strengthen in their distinctiveness. So, instead of a "melting ice ", we could see American Samoa as a kind of tile mosaic. On its useful surface, the bright focus of each culture contributes to a pattern in which all elements work together. It appears that this is how cultures work all over the world. They have a power in themselves, which resists dilution and homogenization. This power is based on the close relationship between the cultures and their members. In this identity lies strength; this strength is the reason we should celebrate, rather than challenge, diversity of culture in every group and individual. Culture is adaptive, integrated, and always changing. It shares these characteristics with organic life. In other words, with systems oriented towards survival. Customs that diminish the survival chances of a given society are not likely to persist. Those which enhance survival chances of a given society are not likely to customs are tried and honed as aids to survival, the mechanisms of human understanding move them constantly into integration with other facets of society. Thus change occurs in culture in an organic way. Humanities and its Cultural Explanation The humanities are involved in cultural understanding in ways with roots as deep as humankind. The mental capacity of humans today connects us absolutely with the mental capacities of our remotest ancestors. We share not only our ability to think and reason, but also the capacity for aesthetic and moral sensibilities. The humanities, the storehouse of values and traditions that form the foundation of society, work to make clear these shared capacities, these shared understandings. The humanities, in effect, help us to understand other cultures, including the cultures of the past. They do this by showing the shared intellectual and artistic heritage with which people of all cultures have made sense of the world.

Supporting Young Children through Family Loss

Because she was the primary caregiver hile you were at work, the baby may feel a bit disconnected or vulnerable. Possible ways that an infant may respond to a family death. You may notice a bit of a change in the babys personality while she adjusts to the change, but maintaining consistency is going to help her immensely. We want her to feel safe and secure. Specific advice from experts on how to help an infant through a family loss. Because children of this age do not understand the concept of death, you may not have to get into much detail. The most crucial thing is going to be to make sure that the baby keeps a constant routine.Keeping ner routine as normal as possible will help get back that feeling of being safe and connected. Part II: Supporting a Toddler Developmental information about what a toddler may feel, believe, or understand about a family death. A lot like the baby, Toddler may not understand the concept of death but will undoubtedly experience a sense of loss from hi s life. He knows that grandma was a constant, daily fixture. Normally at this age, there is a large component of â€Å"out of sight, out of mind† however once Toddler realizes that there is a prolonged and consistent absence, he will experience grief.Also be aware that he ay be sensing and picking up your feelings and reacting to them, or become irritable, this is quite normal. There are also some other signs of grief that Toddler might experience. Possible ways that a toddler may respond to a family death. Some toddlers do experience a shift in personality or are irritable. Most of the time this is temporary, however some personality changes may happen and this is part of the coping process. Sometimes a child's view of the world is altered by trauma and causes the changes to be permanent.You may also notice that there is a loss of appetite or he may even select only certain types of food. He should work his way back to normal eating again. If it persists for more than a coup le of weeks, see your doctor. Sleep might be affected, either not sleeping or being afraid of falling asleep alone. This problem should diminish over time. Specific advice from experts on how to help a toddler through a family loss. The best advice for helping Toddler is going to be to maintain his sleep, feeding and activities routine as much as possible.This will help him regain his sense of connection and balance. If you do notice a decrease in activity and see him Just lying limply be aware that this is a normal part of the process. Try to offer opportunities for activity and play every day until he responds. Be patient with him. You may also see him regressing to previous activities. Being patient is going to be crucial for him. Part Ill: Supporting a Preschooler Developmental information about what a preschooler may feel, believe, or understand about a family death. Preschooler may experience a couple of things to be on the look-out for.Letting Preschooler know that she didn't do anything to cause grandma's death and that there is nothing that you can do to bring her back. Sometimes children develop something called â€Å"magical thinking† where they think hat they either caused the death, could have prevented it or that the person who will come back like a cartoon character. It is not uncommon for a child to continue to believe that the family member is still alive. It is absolutely 0k for you and your family to show emotion around her. This is healthy for her to see. I know how hard this time is for you.Do not add on the extra burden of trying to hide your feelings around the children. Possible ways that a preschooler may respond to a family death. Using the proper term for death is appropriate for Preschooler, so that she can understand and begin get on the road to acceptance. Take cues about attending the funeral from Preschooler. She will let you know. If she is frightened of going, do not force her. Grief is often cyclical and Preschooler ma y show grief now, and as she enters into her teenage years, she may grieve again. That is perfectly normal when a child loses a loved one in their early years.Three specific ideas or activities the family can do at home to help a preschooler through a family loss. You can offer her an alternative way to remember her like a memorial in grandma's house, releasing balloons with messages or writing a letter. She will show you how she can best grieve right now. Let Preschooler talk as little or as much about grandma as possible, keep in mind that she may be non-verbally communicating her feelings about the death through play. Acknowledge her and let her communicate in the way that she knows how. References: KidsAid. (n. d. ).Young children and grief. Retrieved February 13, 2009, from http:// kidsaid. com/dougypage. html Hecker, B. (2005). Magical thinking: Children may blame themselves for a parent's illness and death. Retrieved from http:// medicalcenter. osu. edu/viewer/Pages/index. as px? p=413 The National Institute for Trauma and Loss in Children. (n. d. ). Infant and toddler grief. Retrieved February 13, 2009, from http://www. tlcinst. org/toddlergrief. html EDUC 1006 Application Assignment Evaluation Criteria Application Assignments are worth a maximum of 400 points for the entire course.Note: For privacy purposes, you may not include the actual name of any student, parent, or professional referenced in the assignment. In this course there are five graded Application Assignments. Each is worth a maximum of 80 points, which will be awarded as follows: 64-80 points Response demonstrates a full understanding and correct use of the concepts and/or strategies as presented in the Learning Resources. Response follows directions and includes all components indicated in the instructions. If requested, references are included and properly cited.Writing demonstrates mastery of all criteria for high academic literacy standards as indicated in â€Å"Writing Across the Cu rriculum† (see below). 41-63 points Response demonstrates a general understanding and correct use ot the concepts and/or strategies as presented in the Learning Resources. Response follows directions and includes most components indicated in the instructions. If requested, references are included and properly cited. Writing demonstrates mastery of most riteria for high academic literacy standards as indicated in â€Å"Writing Across the Curriculum† (see below). 0 or fewer points Response demonstrates a minimal understanding and correct use of the concepts and/or strategies as presented in the Learning Resources. Response does not follow all directions and is missing components indicated in the instructions. If requested, references are not included and properly cited. Writing is unclear and/or disorganized. Thoughts are not expressed in a logical manner. Few criteria for high below) are followed. Writing Across the Curriculum Walden University is committed to high acade mic literacy standards.To develop these skills in students, this course has a strong emphasis on written assignments which may include content review questions, application assignments, case study analyses, observations, and online discussions. All assignments are expected to meet the following standards: 1 . Clear central idea carefully and coherently developed and with intended emphasis 2. Correct grammar; no persistent mechanical errors 3. Neat appearance with evidence of having been carefully proofread 4. Academic integrity and honesty 5. Full documentation of research work 6. References cited using APA style (except in discussion postings)

History of the Atari Video System

History of the Atari Video System In 1971, Nolan Bushnell together with Ted Dabney created the first arcade game. It was called Computer Space, based on Steve Russells earlier game of Spacewar!. The arcade game Pong was created by Nolan Bushnell (with help from Al Alcorn) a year later in 1972. Nolan Bushnell and Ted Dabney started Atari (a term from the Japanese game Go) that same year. Atari Sold to Warner Communications In 1975, Atari re-released Pong as a home video game and 150,000 units were sold. In 1976, Nolan Bushnell sold Atari to Warner Communications for $28 million. The sale was no doubt aided by the success of Pong. By 1980, sales of Atari home video systems had reached $415 million. That same year, the first Atari personal computer was introduced. Nolan Bushnell was still employed as president of the company. Sold Again Despite the introduction of the new Atari computer, Warner had a reversal of fortune with Atari with losses totaling $533 million in 1983. In 1984, Warner Communications unloaded Atari to Jack Tramiel, ex-CEO of Commodore. Jack Tramiel released the somewhat successful Atari St home computer and sales topped $25 million in 1986. Nintendo Lawsuit In 1992, Atari lost an anti-trust lawsuit against Nintendo. That same year, Atari released the Jaguar video game system as competition to Nintendo. Jaguar was an impressive game system, however, it was twice as expensive as Nintendo. The Fall of Atari Atari was reaching the end of its legacy as a company. In 1994, Sega game systems invested $40 million in Atari in exchange for all patent rights. In 1996, the new Atari Interactive division failed to revive the company which was taken over by JTS, a maker of computer disk drives that same year. Two years later in 1998, JTS sold Atari assets as intellectual property scraps. All copyrights, trademarks, and patents were sold to Hasbro Interactive for $5 million.

WHO AM I Example

WHO AM I Example WHO AM I – Coursework Example Death of the Salesman. Character Analysis by I suppose I can identify myself with Happy Loman. He is the youngest son in the family, raised in the shadow of more attractive and more perspective Bill. He is the one who tries to create positive and friendly atmosphere in the family since he does not like any conflicts. Happy`s name is the worst joke made up by his parents. Happy is not happy at all since he perceives life in a simplistic way, I do not share this view of life but creating illusionary world in which his family lives seems even more unreasonable to me. He obviously has less illusions and dreams of success than all the other members of his family. It seems that Happy does not understand how the world works as he perceives it from kind of animalistic perspective so that it reminds jungles where the faster and the stronger always wins:â€Å"That’s what I dream about Biff. Sometimes I wanna just rip my clothes off in the middle of the store and outbox that goddamned m erchandise manager. I mean I can outbox, outlift and outrun anybody in that store, and I have to take orders from those petty, common sons of bitches till I can’t stand it anymore†.Happy is still a bit infantile since he cannot figure out why the world does not work according to his perception. His success with women only proves his burning desire to suppress his frustration of success and substitute it with at least some achievements. It seems to me that then death of his father could influence Happy in a positive way as he can grow up, though it may sound ironical. Since the whole play Death of the Salesman is about painful world of illusions I believe that Happy is the only one from the family who has chance to stop fooling himself and start living.

Climatic Variability in the Old Testament Essay - 1

Climatic Variability in the Old Testament - Essay Example Moreover, people before accounted too much of climate changes more to the works of the gods rather than to scientific explanations. So what is climatic variability? Probably, the most efficient way for us to understand the topic is to look first of all to the definition of this episode. According to J. Murray Mitchell (482), climatic system is the combination of atmosphere, oceans, land surface, ice masses and the biosphere interacting with each other, causing the changes either physically or chemically. In the physical aspect of the change, rainfalls can cause landslides that could change hills to plains and could also bring much water to rivers and seas which could wash away land areas. On the contrary, mountains can be created through the meeting of tectonic plates, pushing each other and making a fold on each other’s surface (Grimm, Hahn, Hellenbrand, Kunkele, Laumanns & Leinburger 214). Chemically speaking, lands can become acidic through acid rains and other chemical changes brought about by the increase of carbon dioxide production. This then requires us, human beings to be interested to the study of such phenomenon because it does not just affect our environment but affects our lives directly as well. One of the greatest climatic variability that happened in the 1930’s is the so-called Dust Bowl in the United States that affected not only the farmers of affected areas but the people worldwide. This could have been the modern picture of the Joseph story mentioned earlier. Hopeful migrants settled in the states where there were vast plains which were very productive for the raising of wheat, making these states the primary sources of food during the First World War.

Immigration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Immigration - Essay Example 1). â€Å"Immigration is driving America's demographic change, demographers and others who work with immigrants and refugees reported at the APA Expert Summit on Immigration held in San Antonio in early February† (Farberman, 2006). Immigration does not provide the immigrants with a high standard of living until many years after settlement in the host country. Most of the immigrant families fall below the poverty line in terms of living and their children are disadvantaged in terms of poor educational opportunities. This can be estimated from the fact that 30% of the children belonging to the Mexican immigrant families, 29% children of the Dominican Republic immigrants, 34% children of the Cambodian immigrants, and 29% children of the Afghan immigrants in the USA live below the poverty line (Farberman, 2006). While the initial few years are tough for the immigrants, they yield many economic benefits for the nationals of the host country. ... Nevertheless, â€Å"the total gains accruing to some U.S.-born workers are larger than the total losses suffered by others† (Peri, 2010). According to Hirschman (n.d., p. 1), the social perceptions towards immigration are shaped by its economic outcomes as well as an emotional dimension that a vast majority of the Americans feel more comfortable socializing with people they know than with strangers. There is an inherent fear that the immigrants would show reluctance to give up their original values and culture for the sake of integrating in the American society and culture. This fear might be a potential hurdle in the way of native Americans extending the hand of help to the new immigrants to help them overcome the obstacles of assimilation in the new culture. â€Å"This trend in immigration has and will continue to have a significant impact on all U.S. institutions, from schools to the labor force, to media and politics, to health care† (de las Fuentes cited in Farberm an, 2006). To date, most of the research discussing the factors affecting the immigrants or the natives of the host countries is either about old immigrants or their children or the immigrants in general. There is gap in literature about the effects of immigration on the life of new immigrants and the factors affecting the new immigrants’ integration in the host country. This research will particularly focus the population of new immigrants to study these factors. Knowledge of the factors affecting the new immigrants is fundamental to the development and implementation of strategies to remove the hurdles in their way so that they can settle as quickly as possible and start